Language, Race and Ethnicity
Australia's population is comprised of people from different ethnic and racial backgrounds, some of whom are indigenous to Australia. Language plays a major role in expressing group relations and group conflicts. Ethnic and racial labels, names and expressions are created and used to portray certain groups as inferior or superior to others.
The heterogeneity of Australia's population in terms of origin, descent, language, culture, religion and other characteristics is and should be reflected in language. Non-discriminatory language in relation to race and ethnicity aims to recognise and present the diversity of Australia's population in positive ways.
In NSW, racial vilification amendments to the Anti-Discrimination Act (1977) provide legal sanction against racial defamation, by banning the expression of racial hatred, serious contempt and severe ridicule in a wide range of spoken and written forms.
Major forms of racist language
Who is an Australian?
Fair representation of indigenous Australians
Commonly-used terms in relation to race and ethnicity at UTS
Racist 'humour'
Representation of racial and ethnic diversity in case materials and illustrations
Acknowledgments
Return to Language Matters front page.
Major forms of racist language
Some of the major forms of racist language are:
- Undue emphasis on racial and ethnic 'differences'
The language used to describe the majority group in Australia - people of Anglo-Celtic descent - establishes this group as the norm against which other groups (minority or 'out-groups') are judged. As a result, the racial or ethnic features of Australians of Anglo-Celtic descent are seldom mentioned, whereas those of other groups are stressed, often to the exclusion of other, more relevant features. This occurs frequently, for example, in news headlines and reports, eg. the following instances from Australian newspapers, 'Greek man kicked to death', 'Viets charged on tax fraud'.
It is generally not appropriate to refer to the ethnic or racial background of a person or group unless there is a valid reason for so doing.
Another characteristic of discriminatory language is the tendency to describe the majority group, its actions and its members in positive terms, whereas minority groups, their actions and members are portrayed overwhelmingly in negative terms. For example, a similar characteristic can be given different connotations depending on the national, ethnic, or racial group it is being attributed to, eg. 'reserved English', 'inscrutable Orientals'.
- Stereotyping
A stereotype is a generalised and relatively fixed image of a person or persons belonging to a particular group. For example, stereotypes based upon supposed racial, ethnic or national traits include 'the passionate French', 'excitable Italians', 'whingeing Poms', 'black people are natural athletes'. Even seemingly positive stereotypes are discriminatory in that they take away a person's individuality. Members of racial and ethnic minorities are far more likely to be described in stereotypical terms than members of the majority group. Women from minority groups are labelled with stereotypes that are both sexist and racist.
Racial and ethnic stereotypes are offensive and should be avoided.
- Invisibility
The diversity in and among various racial and ethnic minorities is often not recognised or acknowledged. For example, the various Asian ethnicities present in Australia are often lumped together under the single term 'Asian', despite their many differences.
It is important to avoid using expressions which obscure the history, presence and achievements of Aboriginal people in Australia, or euphemisms which describe the historical treatment of Aboriginal people or other minority racial and ethnic groups, eg. the notion that Australia was 'first settled in 1788'.
- Derogatory labelling and ethnic and racial slurs
Verbal conflict and aggression between the majority and minority groups has given rise to a whole range of racial and ethnic slurs whose main function is to set the targeted group apart from others by stressing their eccentricity, exoticism, or undesirability. These include derogatory terms and nicknames, eg. 'wog', as well as terms which are not overtly derogatory, such as 'New Australian', but which are used to delineate people as 'other'.
Who is an Australian?
The term 'Australian' should not be used in ways which exclude indigenous or immigrant minorities. 'Australian' should be used to refer to any Australian citizen, irrespective of the person's ethnic or racial background or country of birth.
If it is important to specify the descent or ethnicity of a person or a group, or to distinguish between people born in Australia and elsewhere, the following strategies are recommended:
- Use a qualifier in conjunction with the noun Australian, eg. 'Vietnamese-born Australian', 'Arabic-speaking Australian', 'Jewish Australians', etc.
- Use phrases which refer to a person or group's background or origin, eg. 'Australian of Irish background', 'Australians of Chilean descent', etc.
It should be noted that some Australians prefer not to be identified through origin or descent. This preference should be respected.
Fair representation of indigenous Australians
The linguistic portrayal of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people has been and remains mainly negative and stereotypical. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people are most often described in racial group terms, for example as 'blacks' or 'Aborigines', and almost never as individuals with personal names.
- Terms used to describe the indigenous people of Australia
An Aboriginal person is a person of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander descent, who identifies as such, and is recognised as such by the community in which they live.
Terms which distinguish between Aboriginal people in terms of 'racial purity', eg. 'full-blood Aborigines', 'half-caste', 'part-Aboriginal', are often used to serve discriminatory purposes, and must be avoided.
Some indigenous people of Australia object to being labelled 'Aborigines', because it is a term which was imposed on them by the British, and because it is the general term for any indigenous people. They prefer to be known by the terms they have developed for themselves - see list below. Others, however, consider the noun 'Aborigine(s)' to be acceptable. It should always be given a capital 'A' and never abbreviated.
'Aboriginals' was often used as a noun to describe the indigenous people of Australia. As many indigenous people of Australia feel this use to be degrading, it should be avoided. Its use as an adjective is acceptable, eg. the Aboriginal Education Unit, the Aboriginal people of Australia, Aboriginal employees / students.
The separate linguistic and cultural identity of the indigenous people of the Torres Strait Islands must be recognised. The preferred term is Torres Strait Islander. Abbreviations such as 'Islander' and 'TSI' should not be used.
The following are some terms that are used by indigenous people in Australia to refer to themselves:
| Term | People |
|---|---|
| Anangu | used by people in Central Australia |
| Koori | used by people in Southern Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania |
| Murri | used by people in Northern Queensland |
| Nyunga | used by people in South Western Australia |
| Yolngu | used by people in the Northern Territory |
(The spelling of these terms may vary.)
Indigenous people may also identify in terms of a specific place or language. For example, the Galibal people of the Byron Bay hinterland.
Care should be taken when using these terms. For example, it is not appropriate, and may be offensive, to refer to some Aboriginal people as Kooris. In addition, you should be aware that there are a range of terms which Aboriginal people use to describe themselves, eg. 'black Australians', which may not be appropriate for non-Aboriginal people to use.
Wherever possible an Aboriginal person or group's preference of title should be used. If in doubt, ask the person or group. At UTS the Jumbunna Centre for Australian Indigenous People's Studies, Education and Research can be consulted if assistance is required.
- Valuing Aboriginal language and culture
Some Aboriginal words have been appropriated into English, eg. 'lubra'. As such words are often used inaccurately or in a derogatory way, they should be avoided.
Aboriginal cultural practices have been conceptualised - often inaccurately - through English words, eg. 'Walkabout'. Because such terms often have negative connotations when used inappropriately or out of context, they should be avoided.
Expressions such as 'magic', 'sorcery', 'superstition' used in relation to Aboriginal beliefs, and words that imply that Aboriginal creation and religious beliefs are less valid than other religious beliefs, should be avoided.
Commonly-used terms in relation to race and ethnicity at UTS
The suggested usage of some commonly-heard terms relating to ethnicity and race in the Australian context is outlined below. This list aims to provide general guidance. It should be noted that some of the words and phrases listed in this section do not have a single, universally-accepted meaning.
| community language/s | This term generally refers to the non-Aboriginal languages other than English which are spoken in Australia. |
| ethnic group | An historically distinct people with specific characteristics, demonstrating a degree of institutional development along ethnic lines, and drawn together by their language and the pursuit of economic, political, social and cultural interests. |
| Ethnicity is distinct from race, which usually refers to physical attributes such as skin colour. The word 'ethnic' is often inaccurately equated with 'foreign' or 'other', and is frequently applied only to non-Anglo-Celtic immigrants and immigrant groups. However, everybody has an ethnicity and belongs to an ethnic group. Use of the label 'ethnics' to describe immigrants or people from a non-English speaking background is inaccurate and often offensive, and should be avoided. |
|
| ESL | English as a second language. This term indicates that English is someone's second language; it does not indicate the person's competence in English. |
| ethnic | A group within a population which is different from the dominant minority group with regard to such characteristics as language, culture and / or religion. This difference frequently results in discriminatory treatment. |
| immigrant | A person involved in the process of immigration or someone who has recently arrived in Australia. |
| The term 'immigrant' is preferred to the term 'migrant'. If someone has been in Australia for a considerable period of time, it is preferable to avoid using 'immigrant' as a description. 'Immigrant' should not be used exclusively to refer to people of non-English speaking background. | |
| international student/s | Students who are not permanent residents of Australia, regardless of their ethnic and racial background, who are normally enrolled on a full-fee paying basis. |
| Distinguishing between Australian and international students, and queries in relation to resident status, citizenship and nationality, should only be made in relevant contexts, eg. for enrolment purposes. | |
| LBOTE | Language background other than English. |
| Whilst NESB is still primarily used at UTS, it should be noted that LBOTE is gaining currency, and is the collective term that many groups prefer. | |
| LOTE | Language other than English. |
| NESB | Non-English speaking background. The term non-English speaking background is used to indicate that a person's language background is not English; it does not indicate the person's knowledge of English. |
| Be aware that a number of different definitions of the term NESB are used in different contexts. For example, at UTS a staff member is classified as being from a non-English speaking background if English is not the first language of one of their parents. However, the definition of NESB students is those students who speak a language other than English at home. | |
| racial | a group within a population which differs from the majority group minority with regard to physical features (typical of a 'race'). This frequently results in discriminatory treatment. |
| refugee | a person who has a well-founded fear of persecution in their country of origin because of their race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion (UN Convention 1951, UN Protocol 1967). |
| As this definition indicates, the term refugee has a specific meaning, and should not be applied to all immigrants. |
Racist 'humour'
Racist 'jokes' are offensive to many people and should be avoided.
Representation of racial and ethnic diversity in case materials and illustrations
Visual and textual illustrations contribute to the invisibility of ethnic and racial minorities by conveying an Anglo-Celtic image of Australian society. It is recommended that the racial and ethnic diversity of Australia's population be reflected in both visual and textual illustrations, provided that stereotyped language and images are not used.
When quoting from sources that use racist language, use [sic] after the racist word or phrase, thus calling attention to the fact that this form of words is used in the original.
Acknowledgments
The above information is taken from the brochure titled 'Language Matters' and is primarily based on Anne Pauwels, Non-Discriminatory Language and other references.
